From the birth of the automobile, one sees racing drivers and allowing different models to measure them. These competitions are growing and are emerging various types of events by implementing very different vehicles.

Some of these competitions are standard models compete commercially on a large scale, but more or less heavily modified, eg rallies or SuperTouring, while others depict vehicles specially designed for racing, such as Formula 1, or Sport-Prototypes participating in the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Success in these sports depends both on the vehicle and the team that prepares the driver. Some classes also crowned both the best driver and the best manufacturer and the best team.

The racing can be extremely physical (centrifugal acceleration curve, acceleration and braking to) in F1, it is not uncommon to exceed 4 g. A driver can lose up to five pounds in a Grand Prix or endurance race (dehydration).

The organization of motor sport is overseen by the Federation Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), which works with national sports federations, including the French Federation of motorsport, which has 70 000 members. There are a variety of amateur and professional competitions, go-karting to formula cars, or slalom rally through the hillclimb and progression pathways for young competitive drivers.

Defense

If the car is criticized, for others it is rather a great piece of technology that is constantly evolving and is less polluting . It is essential for many people to work and move, the automotive industry, in which Europe and France continue to occupy an important place in the world, directly or indirectly provides employment to millions of people. Finally, drive and have a car can be fun for some and should remain a freedom which, for the vast majority of motorists, who are also pedestrians or users of other modes of transport, shall be exercised in respect of others.

Freedom of movement (in time and route) qu'octroie personal car makes indeed more flexible than public transport. Moreover, they can not meet all needs, especially in areas far from urban centers, or for any transportation charges even if only moderately heavy or bulky.

Another approach, taking into account some criticisms leveled at the car, is being developed since the early 1990s. Response to evidence in the city, an automobile that carries an average of two people, and other personal car is the vast majority of their time off, we saw the development of solutions carpooling, car sharing, or simply rent a car, all of which optimize the use of a vehicle.

Faced with these controversies, but also face financial or legal pressure exercised by the states, advocacy groups and automobile drivers are born, whether historical or recent. The most historically important are the Automobile Club, born around 1900, eg Automobile Club de l'Ouest, the Automobile Club, ADAC or which, with 15 million members, is arguably the most important worldwide. Their work involves both defense policy and practice, promoting motorsport or roadside assistance, especially for the ADAC or the Touring Club Switzerland. More recently, in response to increasing controversy and radar automatic associations claims more appeared as 40 million motorists.

controversies

Reviews

Critics of the automobile, roads every year engulf large investments disfigure the landscape, dénaturalisent territory and threaten ecosystems. According to them, the money invested in alternative means of transport or community would have more communication networks more efficient and sustainable. For some, the car is also a source of social pollution, the poorest and most vulnerable are most directly affected by the nuisance to cars and road infrastructure (noise, accidents, detours imposed on pedestrians and cyclists, urban relegation, etc.)..

Other environmental impacts


The car has other negative effects on the environment:

>>>erosion of the slopes, which results in the dust of the surrounding environment, an increase in the turbidity of runoff.

>>>direct impacts of roads on the environment, including the use of forest land, agricultural, natural, urban;
habitat destruction by earthmoving, mining materials (bitumen);

>>>animal mortality, fragmentation écopaysagère (or ecological) of natural habitats;

>>>local modification of the microclimate above and along roadsides.

>>>light pollution caused by road lighting but also by the vehicle;

>>>noise pollution;

>>>the release of toxics in the drop environnment vehicles (leaking engine oil problem
batteries in particular), or in fires;


>>>non-recycling of a significant proportion of vehicles (especially tires), even those legally scrapped.

The mass of the car in Western societies during the twentieth century has had profound social consequences many. She has contributed notably to the development of suburbs and suburbanization, and the success of the retail model. Automobiles have required considerable adaptation and development of the road network.

Energy Efficiency

According to the Transport and Environment Association, in collaboration with Topten the twelve European market vehicles that emit less greenhouse gas emissions (excluding vehicles
electrical) for 2010 sont.

>>>Toyota Prius 1.8 Hybrid with 89 CO2 g / km

>>>Toyota iQ 1.0 ECO with 99 CO2 g / km

>>>Honda Insight Hybrid with 101 CO2 g / km

>>>Volkswagen Passat 1.4 TSI DSG EcoFuel natural gas with 95 CO2 in g / km

>>>Fiat Punto EVO / Actual Natural Gas 92 NP 1.4 CO2 g / km

>>>Volkswagen Polo BlueMotion 1.2 TDI CR particle filter with 87 CO2 in g / km

>>>Ford Fiesta 1.25 Greenpower Natural Gas with 93 g CO2 / km

>>>Volkswagen Touran 1.4 TSI DSG Eco Fuel Natural Gas with 101 CO2 g / km

>>>Ford Ka Greenpower Natural Gas with 88 g CO2 / km

>>>Nissan Pixo visia / acenta 1.0 with 103 CO2 g / km

>>>Suzuki Alto 1.0 with 103 CO2 g / km

Air pollution


The environmental impact is most known air pollution due to exhaust gases, which cause respiratory diseases and contributes to global planète. With domestic heating appliances, the automobile has become the main cause of smog urban chronic situation in Asian capitals. According to the French Agency for Environmental Health Safety (AFSSET), air pollution, due to nearly a third of voitures to polluting discharges, would be responsible for each year of the death of 6 500 to 9 500 in France.

Major releases of automobile exhaust sont:

>>>Carbon dioxide CO2 contributes to the greenhouse effect, global warming and a changing climate, but is not a pollutant within the meaning of a toxic or irritating gases.

>>>Carbon monoxide (CO). It causes headaches, dizziness, blurred vision and decreased blood oxygenation. At high concentrations, it is deadly, hence the danger of leaving an engine running at idle in a closed garage. It is quickly diluted and degraded CO2 atmosphère.

>>>Nitrogen oxides (NOx). In humans, this irritant gas decreases immune defense and impairs lung function. It is the precursor to the formation of ozone in the lower layers of the atmosphere, by its decomposition in the presence of sunlight. Ozone is an irritant gas and toxic at high concentrations.

>>>Unburned hydrocarbons (HC). In humans, they cause respiratory diseases and allergies. They are the other precursors to ozone formation.

>>>The suspended particles from combustion in diesel engines. Soot particles, for example, increase the risk of respiratory disease and possibly cancer, according to studies épidémiologiques.

>>>Sulfur dioxide SO2. In countries where the sulfur content of fuels is little or no limited, it is a major contributor to acid rain.

>>>Lead. In countries and regions where the addition of lead in gasoline is not prohibited, a large proportion (between 65 and 99% of children living in areas at risk, and about 50% even among those less exposed) would be poisoned lead so chronique. The introduction of unleaded gasoline in developed countries is rapidly indeed resulted in a decrease of about half of the blood lead levels in urban adults, although less susceptible to lead absorption than children..

Benzene. Road transport in general are by far the largest emitters of benzene, and found in Europe a direct link between the decrease in maximum benzene content in fuels (halved in 2000) and a decrease in the concentration of bottom of benzene in atmosphère.

These discharges are subject to regulations in different countries, such as European emission standard Euro for Europe. These standards are attached to standardized driving cycles, such as NEDC or American counterparts to represent a typical driving behavior. The thresholds adopted by these regulations fall steadily over the years.

For a given model, a petrol car consumes more fuel than diesel volume for gasoline has an energy density lower than diesel. But also the thermodynamic efficiency of a gasoline engine is less Almost all drivers observe intakes higher than those measured under standard driving cycles in fixed, yet those who are used commercially.

Technical control


In the context of road safety, many countries have found it necessary to introduce a technical inspection of motor vehicles, which should help to improve the mechanical condition of the fleet and to take out vehicles or too dangerous pollutants. An initial check is made after 3 or 4 years, then every year or every two years depending on the country. The cost of control is highly variable, and Japan, for example, the cost of at least 70,000 yen, or 600 €, encourages users to get rid of their vehicle before échéance.

Learning to drive

Since its inception, the car has a problem of cohabitation with other users of the streets and roads. Also from the late nineteenth century, security officials have begun to regulate its usage first by license, then the rules of the road, appeared in France in 1921. Today, a license is required in almost every country in the world, but its getting and learning the general conduct may take many different forms. A minimum age is required, often the majority, so between 16 and 21 years old to drive a car alone. Learning is generally done in a driving school, but it is in France legally possible to learn to drive without going through such bodies. Statistics road safety have shown the preponderance of young drivers among road accident victims, specific measures for the first year after licensure are taken in many countries: visible identification of young drivers (A in France L in Germany, Switzerland, UK, ...), speed limits lowered for them, or limiting the power to weight ratio of the vehicle (for Italy).

Training in automotive trades

Because of its economic importance, the automotive sector, including production as well as maintenance, is a very large employer. The only area of the design and production employs about 1.9 million people in the EU fifteen, and 1.1 million in the U.S., until more than 10% of the active population in the case of 'Allemagne. The economic importance sector requires appropriate training.

In France, the latter part of the CAP to go to schools of general engineering schools such as central or as specialized ESTACA National School of IFP or ISAT, through SEN vocational baccalaureates and BTS including the automotive aftermarket.

Environment


The generalization of the global automotive since the end of last century poses problems of global warming, pollution, safety and health and in particular lower (pedestrians, cyclists, children , the elderly, etc.)., use of natural resources and in particular the depletion of oil reserves.

The impact on the environment increases with the increase of the weight of the car. Indeed a heavy vehicle has a need for higher energy a little. The aerodynamics of the vehicle becomes dominant when the speed increases the vehicle front surface are then disadvantaged high.

Increased safety and comfort, if it is not offset by improvements in construction (body lean) and motorization increases consumption. For example, the average consumption of Peugeot 306 Diesel built between 1993 and 2002 is 6.2 L/100 KM, while the Peugeot 307 Diesel built between 2001 and 2008 is 6.4 L/100 KM, despite the development of engines. The average French car saw its increase until 2007, 2008 saw the beginning of a decline. In France, between 2007 and 2008, the average car (95% of total sales, the 120 best-selling models) lost 40 kg weigh 1253 kg. Such variation is related to the distribution market much more than the evolution of the weight of a vehicle with a given range.

Advancements in engines is guided by two conflicting goals: governments impose environmental standards more stringent, which go against the decrease in consumption. For example, barriers to exhaust (catalytic converter, particulate filter) lead to increased consumption. Since public awareness of the environmental impact of automobiles, the level of compromise is gradually increased a strong desire to reduce local pollutants, direct sources of illness and death during the 1970 to 1990 regulations now focused towards reducing CO2 emissions. The appearance of local pollutants is treated at the European level by the successive emission standards (standards say "Euro" 1-5), while the appearance of CO2 is currently dealt with in terms of overall objectives of the manufacturers or through national tax laws.

Economy

Automotive industry

The automotive industry is an important industry in many industrialized countries. It sometimes takes a strategic view of both its historical proximity with military industries, the importance it can take in the gross domestic product and employment in some countries (United States, France, Great Britain, Germany) and the image that the car can give a country from the outside (the Italian design, the American way of life, the mechanics German, Japanese zero defects, the French innovation, etc.).

The automobile industry is now organized into large groups of final assemblers using parts from a large number of suppliers and subcontractors, but generally maintain in-house industrial heavier as sheet metal or the production of the motors. The overall production in 2010 amounted to 60 million cars particulières 7.3 million for the Toyota group, 7.1 million Volkswagen AG and 6.3 million for General Motors. Major OEMs, whose turnover is over 10 billion euros, Denso, Delphi, Visteon, Valeo, Faurecia, Magna International, Bosch ...

History

The first functional automobile was invented in 1769 by Joseph Cugnot under the name of dray Cugnot4 but it was not until the second half of the nineteenth century and the progress associated with the industrial revolution to the personal motor vehicles grow and ultimately take their current name automobile. The birth of the automobile is made by adaptation of a steam engine on a chassis but autonomous technical and social issues have delayed its development. The size of the boiler, inappropriate materials at high pressures and frame supporting evil vibrations were the main technical barriers and perceived dangerousness and the actual gear on the road at the time led to binding legislation, as Locomotive Act in the United Kingdom.

The automobile adventure began in France, where the first successful experiments took place in 1873. Such a success that in 1895 about 350 cars were already circulating on French territory, as against 75 in Germany and only 80 in the United States. It was a time when we did not really talk to car manufacturers, but rather bodybuilders. In France, they were able to turn the page of the decorative splendor, who had made their reputation in the eighteenth century, and have learned to play with the new aesthetic codes.

The first cars were produced and marketed steam (The Obedient Amedee Bollee in the 1873) and the first prototypes using the new internal combustion engines are made less cumbersome to 1885. At the same time, the development of knowledge related to electricity leads to the realization of the first electric cars: it has three modes of propulsion compete at the turn of the twentieth century. The vapor is rapidly supplanted and the rapid development of electric cars performance is stopped by the lack of significant progress in energy storage, it is the internal combustion engine that overrides other modes of propulsion. This is the time of the race for speed, and this is the first electric car that it shows (La Jamais Contente is the first to surpass the 100 km / h in 1899) before being supplanted by the car engine explosion. This is also the time of birth of the first car races like Paris-Rouen in 1894. The car is then a luxury product, use binding used on infrastructure totally unsuitable.

The history of the car was born and live different trades. At this point in history, was to build a car in which a collective body builders, but also wheelwrights, locksmiths, a trunk, saddlers, upholsterers, saddlers, platers and painters were involved together. Everything was done to measure, which is adapted to the body frame through the seat or luggage stowed in the rear for first trips.


Two factors will contribute to its development: the gradual coating of roads in the city and in the country to facilitate the use of bicycles and cars, and the development of new methods of production (Taylorism, Fordism), leading to the first car mass production, Ford T. This definitely raises the footprint of the automobile on society in the twentieth century. Innovations succeed then, but no fundamental change in concept. The outline of the automobile current series are plotted in 1922 with the Lancia Lambda monocoque body and independent front suspension, the Chrysler Airflow in 1934 which introduces aerodynamics in automotive series, Citroen and development the Traction Avant in 1934 and the introduction of disc brakes on the DS in 1955, or by the Porsche gearbox synchronizers of the conical 356.

The development of the car is strongly influenced by the crisis, such as the crash of 1929 and the Second World War. Redistribute these cards industry by promoting clusters and cause the comeback of small cars, the peak of this phenomenon has been reached in Germany in the 1950 with the micro-cars like the Isetta. This crisis is also the beginning of the postwar boom, a period in all sectors of the automobile by a boom, which results in an increase in the selection, production and accession to the motor via opening the use of credit in the year 1960. This growth in production, but also the size of cars, their speed is stopped short by the first oil shock. This, combined with the increase in road safety, will be long-term consequences on the relationship between the automobile and society, leading in particular to a strong wave of regulations on speed limits. Social aspects (ecology, road safety) become important issues in the design of automobiles at the end of the twentieth century, leading to a new wave of innovations that downsizing and especially the hybrid Toyota Prius launched on (1997) and Honda Insight (1999).

Sales area

Car sales is also an important economic sector. Dissemination of automobile production is generally provided through a network of independent firms for domestic manufacturers, or through an importer, with the same type of network to another. The importer may not be a subsidiary of the manufacturer. The network is generally assured of a regional exclusivity. This classic pattern of distribution has been undermined by the rules of free competition is working in many countries and led to the development of corporate automobiles.

In addition, automobile consumption is the most important part of the volume of consumer credit, with, in France in 2001, 37% of credit used to purchase new cars and 66% if we add occasion cars.

                                             Tables

Road Safety


Since its birth, the car was seen as a dangerous invention. Its evolution, designed to meet the problems raised by the prevention and road safety as it was perceived over the years, has been tortuous. Apart from the management of the road network and user behavior, the problems are those of passive safety - the protection of occupants in the event of an accident - and active safety - prevention to avoid the accident. Historically, only the latter aspect has been improved continuously; improving passive safety began only in the 1970, a period of increase in fatalities.

Tortuous evolution

The first cars were going at the speed of the horse, but unlike him, were unable to be stopped quickly, especially on an inadequate road network. The difficulty of their behavior and the fear of this new device have led some countries to legislate on the matter strictly by requiring cars beings preceded by a man on foot ("Locomotive Act" in the United Kingdom, for example)

The change in perception by the general public occurred when the car was democratized. 1920 to 1960, road safety, or lack thereof, does émeuvent person is free speed out of town and uncivil behavior commonplace. In France, the slaughter peaked in 1972 with 16,548 deaths that year, which was marked by the creation of inter-ministerial security routière. A significant decrease was subsequently obtained through improved vehicles, the introduction of speed limits, the obligation of wearing a seat belt thanks to the expansion of highways and reducing psychotropic drugs, including alcohol, to be down to about 6,000 in the early 2000.

This trend observed in developed countries is far from widespread. The extremely rapid increase in the number of vehicles circulating in developing countries (China, India, etc..) Or no intervention for road safety in other countries (Russia, Iran, etc..) Leads to Road mortality continues to rise globally, and could become one of the top three causes of mortalité. The World Health Organization (WHO) published in June 2009 the first global report on road safety in 178 countries finds that accidents do every year 1.2 million people between 20 and 50 million injuries non-fatal. Over 90% of accidents occur in countries with low or middle income, with less than half the fleet mondial.

Active safety

Developments suspensions, tires and providing electronic stability control and other driving aids have good progress in terms of handling automobiles, promoting road safety. Cars whose handling is considered hazardous by automotive journalists have become rare, although their frequency in the 1960 was significant, among other reasons because of the virtual disappearance of the engine architecture arrière.


It seems that future improvements in security focus less on limiting the damage caused by accidents on the limited number of them. Indeed, advances in electronics and the efforts of OEMs and gave birth to very sophisticated equipment that are or should gradually generalize on all vehicles. The best known of them is the ABS system to prevent the wheels from locking during braking of the vehicle, thereby maintaining control of the direction of véhicule. More recently, automakers try to tackle the fundamental problem of driver behavior, integrating systems assets to compensate for the shortcomings of the latter, either by directly requesting systems (detecting the level of alertness of the driver) either by replacing (eg through anti-collision systems can brake without driver intervention).

passive safety

Security systems assets and liabilities described above help to produce safer cars. The effectiveness of these systems are tested and measured during impact tests (or crash tests) by international organizations such as the EuroNCAP for the European community. A car safe for passengers is now a selling point for automakers who are working hard on the issue.

Real progress has been made in recent years, particularly in regard to the "airbags" (airbags) or belts pretensioners avoiding shock violating the driver on the steering wheel. On convertibles, hoops behind the seats back very quickly when the computer believes there is a risk of rollover. Automakers are also working on systems even more efficient. Is an important advance in this area is that the number of airbags from two to eight in a few years. No car anymore without being fitted out.

If passengers are getting better protected, however this was not necessarily the case for pedestrians. The new safety standards take into account the damage brought to them during a frontal impact. These changes have led manufacturers to develop hoods and front fenders able to absorb some of the impact energy to minimize the damage to the pedestrian. Some vehicles are equipped with pyrotechnic trigger and raising the hood a few centimeters in an accident, can prevent or limit the impact of a pedestrian with the engine block.

Insecurities cars

The relationship between car and road safety is not only to evaluate the safety of the vehicle alone, but also to study the interaction between vehicles and accidents. From this point of view, 4x4, SUV, vans and minivans are frequently criticized for obstructing the field of vision of other drivers they cause. But it is their dangerous collision with an automobile or light a vulnerable road user which they are charged.


In a collision between two vehicles, they must dissipate all their kinetic energy in the form of mechanical energy (deformation vehicles) or kinetic (a possible rebound vehicles). The kinetic energy is proportional to the mass, these heavy vehicles cause damage far superior to those of a vehicle speed equal to lighter. The danger of this type of vehicle for vulnerable road users, especially pedestrians, is related to two aspects: firstly, their driving behavior less (capacity less avoidance, braking distances longer) increases the risk of collision with pedestrians in urban areas where speed is below 60 km / h, and secondly the design of these vehicles is more dangerous for pedestrians in accidents in areas where speed is less than 60 km/h .

This proven design problem is highlighted by the Euro NCAP impact with a pedestrian, and sometimes exacerbated by an accessory usefulness questionable, bull bar. The owners of these cars are regarded by some as threatening the lives of others, and making the choice of their own security at the expense of the safety of other road users, some idea contradicted by statistics accidents. In contrast, advocates of such vehicles argue that average behavior does not condemn all drivers; You can not judge a person guilty by default, especially riding in a vehicle approved. If there is a failure, it would be to search the targets set administrations whose role is to ensure the safety of the population.

Technical

The principle is to put the car on a chassis powertrain and all accessories necessary for its functioning. These elements are controlled by the driver via commands, often in the form of a steering wheel and pedals.

A frame supports and brings together all the components of the automobile. The frame is mounted on four wheels, two of which are steerable, to mobility. Suspensions carry on them a resilient connection between the body and the wheels. A bodywork window partly constituting an enclosed provided with seats, allows the carriage of seated, any time.

The cars are usually powered by an internal combustion engine, one or more electric motors can also operate with the combustion engine, or replace it. The mechanical power supplied by the motor is transmitted to the wheels via a gearbox and transmission members. A reservoir allows the storage of fuel to the engine, while a battery recharged by an alternator driven by the engine, supplies current to the electric components.

Control instruments and controls such as the steering wheel, pedals, speedometer or tachometer, allow the operation of the automobile. Finally, the elements of comfort (heating, ventilation, air conditioning, radio, ...) and safety (light, ABS, ...) are accessories in ever increasing numbers.

Etymology and terminology

The term "automobile" is originally an adjective derived from the concatenation of a Greek prefix, αὐτός (oneself), and a Latin suffix, mobilis (mobile). It was created in the invention of the first "horseless carriages" because they were fitted with a motor with onboard power source while the other "car", stagecoaches, carriages, carts, trolleys and other land vehicles were driven by one or more horses (horse-drawn) or one or oxen.

The noun "car" is attested by 1890 but its kind, today only female, has long been a topic for linguists open. The French Academy ruled from 1901 to Female kind, but the controversy has become extinct long after, the male is occasionally attested until 1944.

Due to its wide distribution and its use in the most diverse environments, the car is now called by many names, familiar or slang as auto, car, car, banger and cash, taffy, harp, hand drill, wagon in Europe and beater tank and in French North America. The term tank is standard against Francophones southern .

Automotive

A car, full name, even if it is no longer used, an automobile, or simply a car, or a char (in North America) is a wheeled land vehicle equipped with an engine embedded in the vehicle. This type of vehicle is designed to transport people on the road, but its definition can be extended to transport goods as well as to vehicles that can run on all terrains. The etymology of the word explains the variety of definitions, since the term comes from the Greek "αὐτός" ("self") and the Latin word "mobilis" ("mobile"), referring to the character of the self-propelled "automobile "that distinguishes it from the horse-drawn carriage.

The automobile is a personal means of transport among the most popular on the planet currently. Its usual capacity of transport is generally five, but can vary from one to nine seats. The limited use the term automotive vehicles smaller than that of buses and trucks, but sometimes includes light commercial vehicles for personal use. Although vehicles "cars", the two-wheelers are not classified as automobiles.

New Markets

As explained in the site Univers-Nature, the large population of countries like Russia, India and China represent potential markets for the automotive industry. If within the European Union there are 600 cars per 1 000 inhabitants, this figure is 200 per 1000 in Russia and 1000 in only 27 Chine. Moreover, due to plummeting sales in the United States, China became in January 2009 the first global automotive market. Finding inevitable anyway according to experts, the financial crisis has accelerated the movement. In addition, the measures taken by the Chinese government for the automotive industry, such as lower purchase taxes have increased a little more phénomène.

Some very long-term forecasts estimate that the global fleet by 2060 could reach 2.5 billion vehicles, nearly 70% are due to countries currently little motor like China or Inde.

Future Growth

Thanks to the open market "boom" (China and South America), auto sales rose 4% in 2007 to reach a global market of 900 million unités. Experts believe that the billion cars will be taken before the end of the year 2010. In addition, since the lifetime of vehicles is 10 years on average, in highly motorized countries, the fleet renewal is slow and progressif.


Nevertheless, several automotive markets are in trouble. The U.S. market is indeed the most affected by the crisis, showing a sharp decline in sales. "Change of circumstances économique" in the United States, namely the decline in wages, lack of jobs, rising house prices and oil is falling nearly 15 million units sales of 2008 cars on the year. The French market also knows a major crisis in early 2010, with a fall in sales of more than 20% on the first quarter alone the year 2012.

Evolution Of The Fleet

Past Growth

The global car fleet has evolved very rapidly, experiencing a tremendous boom for years. Due to the war effort, the First World War raised a large burst of technological innovations but also work practices and optimization of machinery to increase production significantly since the war terminée. Global automotive production threefold during the Thirty Glorious and passes 10 million to 30 million vehicles annually. A climate of peace and prosperity has indeed favored the purchase of items of comfort such as automotive. In 2002, the global annual production of 42 million units and totaled more than 70 million in 2007 with the rise of China in particular, has more than doubled in 40 years. Although the climate crisis of 2007-2008 began on the part of auto sales in Europe and America, the volume of global car fleet will continue to rise thanks to emerging markets, offsetting those countries développés.

To The Car Without Oil

Experts seem to agree that oil resources will be depleted. In 1999, the share of road transport in the world consumption was 41%. Due to the growth of some Asian countries such as China, the fuel consumption will inevitably increase significantly while production will fall. In the near future, the road may be deeply upset especially as alternatives to gasoline are currently more expensive and less performantes. Automakers must therefore develop vehicles capable of moving without oil. However, current solutions have a very favorable performance and environmental performance discutable.


To reduce the environmental impact of regulations more stringent encourage automakers to develop engines with reduced consumption, or to sell hybrid vehicles like Toyota with the Prius, pending the possibility of building a clean car. These hybrids use a conventional internal combustion engine which are adjoint one or more batteries supplying one or more electric motors. In addition, many manufacturers are moving toward electricity as a future source of energy for future cars. Some vehicles, such as the Tesla Roadster and the Nissan Leaf are already powered solely by electricity.

New Body

The twenty-first century is also characterized by the diversification of body types. Previously, the ranges of automotive manufacturers were limited to sedans to wagons, coupes, cabriolets, etc.. Face greater competition and internationalized, automakers are trying to innovate "mixing" the kinds of vehicles. The first body end of this new trend is the Sport utility vehicle (SUV). It is adapted 4x4 all-terrain use more urban. Crossovers, the Nissan Qashqai is the best-known, are designed to attract as many customers as SUV sedans offering comparable benefits to both bodies. SUV and Crossover are also very popular in the United States.


German manufacturers are among the most prolific builders in this area. Mercedes launches in 2004 sedan 5-door coupe, the CLS, Volkswagen unveiled the 2008 Passat sedan version "cut-comfort" and BMW began the same year, sales of 4x4's cut, the BMW X6.

Tuning Car

Tuning, the English "to tune" which means grant, adjust (a musical instrument, motor) is a fashion appeared under that name in the 1980 and aimed to customize or make more efficient cars. This trend has its roots in the automobile preparation, where "pickers" are busy improving and developing mechanical power moteurs. The preparation of large automotive series is as old as racing, but in the 1960 many preparations Carlo Abarth and Amédée Gordini left the race for use on the open road. Subsequently, the preparations were separated aesthetic mechanical preparations and took their own importance to a certain audience.

Proponents of this type of preparation usually change their entire automotive engine is pushed, the body is equipped with design elements added and visible colors, the interior benefits from powerful audio systems, etc.. Particularly interested in tuning a young population eager to own a personal vehicle and different. The sums involved in tuners are generally important. Recognizing the potential of this mode, automakers often offer their own brand of accessories on their modèles.

The Low-Cost Car

The evolution of the market and the increase in oil prices lead to the development of low-cost cars saying (English term meaning "low cost") as well as Logan Dacia vehicles simple, low power consumption and less pollution. Moreover, the Logan knows a great success, with sales being worth around 700,000 models in late October 2007. This success led other manufacturers to make their own models at low prices, or even very cheap as the Tata Nano (€ 1,500 in India) launched in 2009.

Of course, low cost car with great success in the country "taking off" - Romania, Iran, Turkey, and Morocco - but they are also sold in richer countries such as France.

These trends, coupled with the cost of their retirees, help to explain the strong decline of U.S. manufacturers, like General Motors that the products offered will be inappropriate to changing demands even in its market national.

Late Twentieth Century

new considerations

In the late twentieth century, the automobile has become fully part of society. Developed countries dénombrent about a car per capita density that is not without problems. Thus, since the 1970, the car has proved somewhat controversial, mainly because of its negative impact on the environment and road safety issues at the root of one of the leading causes of mortality in the population of these pays.


States implement severe measures against speeders, granting the right to punish or police on the spot to remove the license of a motorist. Security measures will also be taken in the design of automobiles, to reduce the rate of mortalité.

At the beginning of the twenty-first century, an international movement called Carfree ("freed from the car") was born. This supports the development of car-free cities and promotes examples of car-free neighborhoods like Vauban in Freiburg im Breisgau. This move is part of an anti-car activism increasingly virulent. The perception of the car seems to start a real change. Buying a vehicle loses its character and statutaire are emerging solutions carsharing, carpooling, or even self-service vehicles with a subscription in large métropoles.

Electronics Generalized

The use of electronics in the automotive world tends to generalize across all technologies. The spark ignition engine and the fuel supply of the latter is now done electronically; injection is managed by a computer to optimize the flow rate and the fuel injection time based on a whole series of parameters (air temperature and engine internal vacuum, external pressure, throttle position ...)

The automatic gearboxes finally a benefit to their complexity adaptive management to schedule use patterns "playing" on time shifting. The suspensions are also controlled electronically modifying their behavior according to the roughness of the road surface or driving choices of conductor: flexible for comfort or for stiffer sportivité.

The electronics also benefits safety (active safety) due to the implementation of many systems driving aids, like traction control systems. The motor provided with a drive system, the computer, by means of sensors, detects the wheel slip and accordingly makes the transition from a two-wheel transmission with four wheels, by distributing the torque to the set of roues. The Bosch is also developing the ABS system (for "Anti-Blocking System" or "Antiblockiersystem") to prevent the wheels from lock when braking important.

Finally, for the years 1970-1980, the development of automobiles is mainly through computer design tools. It says "Computer Aided Design" (CAD)

Technology In Response To The Crisis

Redesigned engine


The energy crisis imposes a necessary research to optimize the consumption of automobiles, and thus a renewal of engines. For this, manufacturers are striving to improve the performance of their machines thermal rethinking the design of the combustion chambers and ducts admissions, as well as reducing friction due to the translational motion of the piston into the crankcase. In addition, the engine carburetor abandon in favor of the injectors. The gearboxes are also optimized in particular by extending reporting to reduce the amplitude of mounted régime.

The diesel engine is used on vehicles since the 1920 but has only a symbolic presence in the field of vehicles. Mercedes is the only brand to offer many sedans Diesel since 1936. The end of 1974 marked a turning point in the use of this type of engine. Indeed, the diesel engine, with better thermodynamic efficiency the engine essence, consumes less fuel and there is consequently a major craze among most manufacturers Volkswagen and Oldsmobile in 1976, Audi and Fiat in 1978, Renault and Alfa Romeo in 1979 offering diesel engines. The "dieselize" automobiles is further fueled by government actions (reduction of taxes diesel)

Turbochargers are used to compress the air prior to its use in the combustion chamber, wherein fuel is injected. This procedure allows to introduce more air displacement equal, increasing engine efficiency. This technique has been used since 1973 on some models 'marginal' BMW, Porsche and Chevrolet as limited by the mode of operation of motor gasoline (spark-ignition engine). But it is with the advent of diesel that overeating takes its full extent, since it is a self-igniting. Overeating thus increases the power of the car that consumes less Diesel versions essence.

Oil Shocks Of The 1970

The first oil shock occurred 6 October 1973 following the surprise attack on Israel by Syria and Egypt. Following this conflict, OPEC, combine together the biggest oil producers decide to raise prices of crude oil, causing a serious energy crisis in the automotive industry. The United States are forced to produce smaller cars, which nevertheless difficult to impose a market considered conservative. In Europe, the crisis upsets the body. Indeed, many sedans are gradually abandoned in favor of a new form of auto: bicorps. It is compact car, less than 4 m, whose trunk is no longer separated from the cockpit but integrated it is accessed by a tailgate. In 1974 appears the Volkswagen Golf, designed by Ital Design, sparking a huge success in its forms "attractive and functional"

In 1979, Iran and Iraq declared war causing the second oil shock, the price of oil more than doubled. The car underwent a period of severe restrictions: to Los Angeles, the government implements measures obliging refuel vehicles not only on alternate days depending on the number of their license plate. To limit fuel consumption, automakers develop cars more aerodynamic. The term "Cx" to drag, made ​​its appearance in the specifications charges.

Disruption Of Society


The numbers of road accidents are very high. U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson noted in 1965 that 1.5 million people died on U.S. roads in 20 years, a record heavier than the wars. Some, like Ralph Nader published a pamphlet called "Unsafe at any speed", involving the responsibility of manufacturers. Also in France, the number of road accidents has doubled between 1958 and 1972, the Government, through the Prime Minister Jacques Chaban-Delmas, recognizes that "the French network is not suitable for heavy traffic and fast ". Manufacturers will therefore pay more attention to the safety of their modèles.


In 1971, Australians were the first to vote compulsory wearing of seat belts. Due to these new priorities, FWD wins against propulsion, most manufacturers offer their new models with this transmission. In France, the famous 4CV Renault rear engine is replaced by the R4 FWD. The United States also opt for this technical solution, the first to be equipped is ToronadoSB Oldsmobile. In racing, the rear central position, that is to say at the front of the rear axle, is preferred. Indeed, this position helps balance the masses and ideally reduce roll and pitch in behavior dynamique.

In the 1960, awareness of safe automotive raises a social phenomenon that is consumer protection. Following the publication in 1965 UNSAFE AT ANY book by Ralph Nader SPEED, then leader of the Movement consumerism, in which he denounces the lack of security of American cars, General Motors is obliged to remove the Chevrolet Corvair for sale . Subsequently, he brought and won several lawsuits against the auto industry in 1971 and created an association for the defense of American consumers, called "Public Citizen".

Urban management is complicated automobiles gradually. Air pollution, traffic congestion and parking congestion are problems that cities face. Recent attempt to promote alternatives to the car so that, paradoxically, the trams are again appearing or suggest the "carpool" to automobilistes.

Concentration of manufacturers

To cope with the crisis, some manufacturers have no choice but to join (or be bought) with other manufacturers. From the late 1960 to the 1980, a wave of mergers and consolidation reduces the number of major manufacturers: Citroën acquired in 1965 Panhard and Maserati in 1968 Peugeot bought Citroën and European subsidiaries of Chrysler to form PSA, Renault takes control of American Motors before selling Chrysler, federates VAG Audi, Seat and Skoda, Saab joined General Motors while his compatriot chooses Volvo Ford, Fiat acquired Alfa Romeo, Lancia and Ferrari 1969.

Series redemptions increase, as shown in the example of British manufacturers. In 1966, the British Motor Holding is formed by the association of Jaguar, Daimler bought before, and BMC, then merged with Leyland Motor Corporation to form the British Leyland Motor Corporation. The year 1965 also marks the creation of the Volkswagen Group "Audi-NSU Auto Union».

Compact Cars

The year 1956 marks the return of the crisis in the automotive field. Indeed, following the nationalization of the Suez Canal by General Nasser fuel prices soar. Following the economic shock that follows, consumer attitudes change radically a period of significant growth, the automobile must now be "pragmatic".


Automakers are therefore obliged to take into account a major problem that was not one before, namely the fuel consumption of their vehicles. Automotive groups develop compact models, simply referred to as "Compact Cars", not exceeding 4.50 m. Americans are particularly affected by this phenomenon, occurring in 1959 smaller vehicles, while remaining nevertheless impressive in comparison to the European market Chevrolet Corvair, Ford Falcon or Valiant Chrysler are among the most connus. Much smaller cars will experience success even more incredible, like the Austin Mini.

"Dependence Automobile"

While the development of almost all major cities in North America is made based on major highways, an addiction is installed in companies. Some consider it a psychological dependence while others see it as an addiction to movement means practice. The consequences are numerous: urban congestion, air pollution, accidents increasing, increased cardiovascular disease because of a lack of physical practice, etc. This dependence is moreover reinforced by the "phenomenon of mom-taxi" because of the risks associated with growing city cars, mothers are forced to take their children voitures.

The notion of "automobile dependence" was popularized by Australian writers Peter Newman and Jeffrey Kenworthy in the book Cities and Automobile Dependence in 1979, in which they show the close relationship between the car and the city and state that the dependence the car is not applied to cities and motorists, that is to say that the structure of cities creates a dependency on the automobile. Gabriel Dupuy considers in turn the source of this dependence is based on a "virtuous circle inevitably linked to a vicious circle" users wishing to leave the "car system" can not, because it would give too much of avantages.

Several reasons for this dependence are advanced by the experts. The first is purely cultural, that users are not ready to give up their cars to the extent that it allows them "to live in the open air in houses" and not in congested cities. Georges Pompidou even says: "The French love their cars." From a socio-economic perspective, "the purchase of a vehicle is the standard of consumption". Following the entry into working life or foundation of a household, the user is offered a vehicle. Finally, some simply consider that the performance of the car are such that they are not equivalent in terms of sportiness, comfort or sécurité.

Road Infrastructure Development

Since the 1910, the rapid growth of the automotive market raises significant growth of the road network. In 1913, the United States decided to build a highway, called Lincoln Highway, crossing for the first time the country between the cities of New York and San Francisco. The work is largely financed by the automakers époque.

But the road world takes another dimension in the 1960. The United States is particularly involved in development projects of their "Interstate Highway System" (motorway). The federal government passed successively in 1944, 1956 and 1968 "Federal Highway Acts" legislation implementing the expansion of the network (65 000 km in 1968). Moreover, "American life is organized around the road" for the benefit of the automotive industry and pétrolière46 (see the great American streetcar scandal). McDonald's opens for the first time in 1953 in Phoenix a restaurant dedicated solely to restoring rapide while there is already the concept of drive-thru.

In Europe, while Germany continues to expand its motorway network ("Autobahn") began during the Second World War, France is rooted in its "economic and social conservatism" and its highway network is summarized for years one section west of Paris.

Design Booming


From a stylistic point of view, cars are becoming more creative. Two schools of thought, although totally different, will profoundly mark the design of automobiles: the opulence and sophistication of American Italians. Americans are the first to bring the importance of design. The bosses office style work for the "Detroit Big Three" Harley Earl for GM, Ford and George Walker Virgil Exner for Chrysler. Raymond Loewy also plays a major role in this evolution. In 1944, a company of industrial designers is based with his help. Three years later, Time devotes its cover. His most beautiful creation Studebaker Starliner is in 1953.


But the Italian style is one that will have the greatest longevity. The big names of Italian design still dominated the field: Pininfarina, Bertone, Zagato, Ghia ... This new mode is initiated by Pininfarina at the Paris Salon of 1947, with the Cisitalia 202 whose bonnet is a "milestone in the evolution of post-war style".

While style studios have existed since the 1930 in the United States, Europe lacks. Simca was the first to understand the importance of design and thus founded the first design studio. Soon, other manufacturers background of the same image to the collaboration between Pininfarina and Peugeot.

The fifties

An unprecedented


The 1950 experienced strong economic growth resulting in a dramatic increase in automobile production. The consolidation of industries initiated at the end of the war takes effect. The social climate is again favorable to the purchase of goods and increased comfort of living is conducive to new technical innovations and marketings. In 1954, the selling price of the car down for the first time in years. Same households use credit to provide a new véhicule. Moreover, in 1960, the car is almost within reach of all budgets in industrialized countries, as is the variety of range étendue. The fifties saw and increase in U.S. production of unprecedented proportions: 3.5 million units produced in 1947 and 5,000,000 in 1949 before reaching nearly 8 million 1955.

While Americans produce more cars in large and opulent, Europe simply develop vehicles with engines of economic cylindrée41 average. From 1953, the Europeans are catching up on the Americans and become leaders in the market of small and medium displacement. Germany, which took advantage of the aid granted by the Allies after the war and investment of U.S. industries operating in the country, becomes the first européen. However, some companies such as BMW and Auto Union can not recover their development in the immediate past, because their factories are located in the area annexed by the Soviets. Mercedes-Benz, meanwhile, produces automotive midrange and luxury, showing its ambition to conquer the world market. Thus, at the New York Auto Show 1954 the 300 SL is shown that innovated with the opening "butterfly" its doors - iconic 1950.

Internationalization

From the 1950, the automobile ceases to be a privilege of only the United States and some European countries. Sweden, which was previously isolated automotive market begins an opening; proposes Volvo PV 444 in 1947, the first sedan Swedish international vocation. The manufacturer Saab is the same. Subsidiaries of American and European car manufacturers locate in different countries of the South and particularly in Latin America. The Volkswagen Beetle is thus produced in Brazil from 1956. Holden is the brand created in 1948 by General Motors to conquer the Australian market, including in producing automobiles specific pays.

Japan, meanwhile, begins to rise slowly, producing its first large series models. To catch up, some manufacturers are partnering with Western companies. The American statistician William Edwards Deming to develop methods of quality management which will subsequently the success of the industry japonaise.

Avant-garde of the 1950

In Eastern Europe, the automobile remains restricted to a certain stagnation nomenklatura despite great technical Trabant East German Democratic Republic and other GAS soviétiques. If, in Eastern Europe, technically nothing new appears, the West is conspicuous by its avant-garde.

The British manufacturer Rover decided to adapt the turbine engine so far for planes, on a land vehicle. In 1950, he presented a first model with this propulsion, a roadster called "Jet 1". Rover continued development and production of this type of engine until 1970. Also in France, Jean-Albert Grégoire and society Socéma develop a coupe driven by a turbine, which Cx allowed to reach 200 km / h. But the most famous vehicles with a turbine, taking the form of a rocket, are indeed the "Firebird" General Motors, the first model, the XP-21, appears 1954.

Chevrolet Corvette 1953, considered the first American sports car, is also innovative. Except that it is the first production car with lines directly from a concept car, it is best to first have a plastic body, namely the fiberglass. In France, the Citroën DS is the top of the display because of the impressive number of new features: a very aerodynamic profile, thanks in particular to the wheels bodied, a hydraulic power steering, disc brakes, an automatic gearbox, a hydropneumatic suspension etc.

Births Championships

In 1920-1930, the "Formulas International Race No. 1," car designed specially for racing, make their appearance. But it was not until 1946 that the discipline takes its magnitude due to the standardization of rules required by the Commission international sports.

In 1950, while auto racing in full swing, the Federation Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) decided to organize a world championship manufacturers. This championship has six major international auto prices down in Europe, except the Indianapolis 500. The races are open to Formula 1, also called Indy Car at 500 miles, where the capacity does not exceed 4.5 liters. The Alfa Romeo Alfetta (type 158 and 159), driven by Giuseppe Farina and Juan Manuel Fangio, outperforming the overall championship, prompting the FIA to establish thereafter categories. Formula 2 is made ​​and appearance 1952.

Legends Of The Automotive


Since the 1920, Enzo Ferrari in short competition in the colors of Alfa Romeo but decided on the eve of the Second World War, leaving the Italian manufacturer to start his own company, called Avio Costruzioni. Nevertheless, it was only after the Liberation that its cars are known and that "his name is confused with the more famous of all brands in the history of the automobile". In 1947, the first Ferrari racing made its appearance, called Ferrari 125 S.

In 1949, the Ferrari 166 MM, automobile racing, winning the 24 Hours of Le Mans while the Ferrari 166 S becomes the first Ferrari tourism, produced in factories in Maranello. The two cars, although they have different uses, have many things in common, especially mechanical. This "exceptional filiation" will be partly responsible for the incredible success of the brand. In 1950, Ferrari won numerous endurance races enjoying the reputation of automobiles.

After the war also sign the release of Ferdinand Porsche, then imprisoned in France at the end of the Second World War made collaboration with the Nazi regime. Released in 1947, he started with his son Ferry Porsche, the design of a new prototype called "356." It is a small roadster with the engine placed centrally aesthetically approaching the Volkswagen Beetle (designed by Ferdinand Porsche). The final version, which officially signs the appearance of the car brand Porsche, made its appearance in 1949 at the International Geneva Motor Show and quickly attracted customers "with its agility, its short wheelbase and its economy". The ambitions of the brand will continue to grow, as well as its reputation, thanks to the brilliant mechanical and automobile lines indémodables.